Comparison of Drug Delivery Systems

Comparison of Drug Delivery Systems 1. INTRODUCTION 1.1. Current Status of Drug Delivery Systems During the past two decades, Drug development technology in Pharmaceutical Industry with innovations in formulation development have received a lot of attention. Drug delivery as an opportunity to extend product life cycles has indeed proved its place in the market with significant advantages of therapeutic gains as well as commercial success. In India drug development technology is still in nascent stage with academia and research institutes collaboration as main stay of the development of novel products. The main motto of Indian companies, in the development of newer pharmaceutical formulations by using NCE in order to achieve by providing cost effective, therapeutically effective with short term and long term options. While development in the oral route is still the main focus, pulmonary, cutaneous, transdermal and other multiple routes are gaining increased attention1. The application of modern technology in the field of drugs administered via oral, parenteral, pulmonary and intra-ocular finds a newer, better than the conventional dosage forms is an important era in the drug delivery. The health scenario in India demands Novel Drug Delivery Systems (NDDS) for more than 20 diseases and conditions for which rationale for such system is established. More than half of these conditions are prevalent in India and other developing and under-developing countries only and offer a great challenge and opportunity for the Indian Pharmaceutical Industry2. A number of drug delivery platform technologies currently exist that may be adapted to various drug molecules to yield superior medicines. Such medicines while offering obvious benefits to patients will also generate a more stable and patent protected revenue stream3. Although the drug delivery concept is not new, a great progress has recently been done in the treatment of variety of diseases. Targeting delivery of the drugs to the lesions and controlling the release rate at the site of action is the most important aspect of Drug Delivery System. Research is being carried out throughout the world at a great place, devising strategies for drug delivery to overcome biological barriers and the physiochemical properties of the modern drugs. Above all the prominence of drug delivery systems can be understood by the variety that out of the $250 billion worldwide value of pharmaceuticals, 10% is attributed to it4. In this context controlled drug delivery along with targeted drug delivery forms the essence of modern and future drug delivery systems. 1.2. Controlled Drug Delivery Systems As the name implies, CDDS serves two functions. First it involves transport of the drug to particular part of the body and the second function is that of the controlled release. The main advantages of Controlled drug delivery systems are: Maintenance of optimum therapeutic drug concentration in the blood with minimum fluctuations. Predictable and reproducible delivery for extended duration. Enhancement of activation duration for short half life drugs. Minimizes the side effects. Reduce the frequent dosing. Reduce the wastage of drug. Better patient compliance. 1.2.1. Oral Controlled drug Delivery Systems Oral controlled release technology was evolved with matrix technology. Several research papers in the 1950s and 1960s reported as simple matrix tablets or monolithic granules. In 1952, a new formulation â€Å"spansule† a timed- release formulation was introduced by Smith Kline French which launched a widespread search for other applications in the design of dosage forms. Advances in oral controlled release technology are attributed to the development of novel biocompatible polymers and machineries that allow preparation of novel design dosage forms in a reproducible manner5. For controlled release systems, the oral route has by far received most attention and success because of the fact that gastro-intestinal physiology offers more flexibility in dosage form design than other routes6. Apart from that owing to patient acceptance, convenience of administration, cost-effective manufacturing, and generally long product shelf-life is a continuous emphasis to develop oral formulati ons will persist. Some of the marketed oral controlled release products were listed in table no.1.1. Table No. 1.1. Marketed oral controlled release products7 1.2.2. Particulate Oral Drug Delivery System In any drug delivery system the use of carriers to convey a certain dose of the drug is important as drug itself. Various carrier systems in application till date are macromolecular drug carriers, micellar systems, liposomes, red cells and microparticulates. These were used to carry a wide variety of pharmaceutical agents in a number of different therapeutic situations. Among these chiefly microparticulate carriers has been accounted for an important potential application in the administration of therapeutic molecules such as sustained drug delivery in cancer and infectious disease or for the administration of gut labile drugs8. Moreover, due to their size microparticulates are not usually administered through intravenous routes but via alternate routes. Thus, inclusion of drugs in microparticulate carriers clearly holds significant promise for the improvement in the therapy of several disease categories. They serve many purposes9 such as: Protecting the incorporated components from degradation Controlling drug release Increasing adjuvancy Targeting to the specific sites. Due to the unique physiological conditions in the GI tract, the particulate systems are required to meet the following criteria before they can be used as effective oral delivery vehicles10. Firstly they should be resistant to undergo degradation in GI tract. The encapsulated drug in the particles need to be absorbed with high efficiency in GI tract to be therapeutically effective. Currently it is believed that, less than 1% of the particles can be absorbed after oral administration. 1.3. Biodegradable polymers and Mucoadhesion Mucoadhesive polymers Mucoadhesive polymers11 have properties to get adhered to the mucus membrane and hence capable of prolonging the contact time of the drug with a body tissue. The use of mucoadhesive polymers can significantly improve the performance of many drugs. This improvement ranges from better treatment of local pathologies to improved bioavailability and controlled release to enhance patient compliance. Ideal characteristics of mucoadhesive polymers12 It should be able to accommodate both oil and water soluble drugs for the purpose of controlled drug delivery. It should possess an optimum molecular weight to the mucoadhesive. It should demonstrate local enzyme inhibition and penetration enhancement properties. It should show specificity for attachment to an area or cellular site. It should show specificity and stimulate endocytosis. It should be inert and compatible with the environment. It should be easy and inexpensive to fabricate. It should have good mechanical strength. It should possess a wide margin of safety both locally and systemically. Microspheres can be defined as solid, approximately spherical particles ranging in size from 1 to 1000 ÃŽ ¼m. They are made of polymeric, waxy or other protective materials, i.e. biodegradable synthetic polymers and modified natural products such as starches, gums, proteins, fats and waxes. Microspheres are small and have large surface to volume ratio. At the lower end of their size range they have colloidal properties. The interfacial properties of microspheres are extremely important, often dictating their activity. Microparticles are of two types Microcapsules: The entrapped substance is completely surrounded by a distinct capsule wall. Microspheres: The entrapped substance is dispersed throughout the microsphere matrix are shown in the Fig: 1.1. Fig: 1.1. Differentiation between microcapsules and microspheres Microsphere carrier systems made from the naturally occurring biodegradable polymers have attracted considerable attention for several years in sustained drug delivery. However, due to short residence time at the site of absorption, the success of these microspheres is limited. By providing the drug delivery system a means of intimate contact with the absorbing membrane, these delivery systems would be advantageous which can be achieved by coupling mucoadhesion characteristics to microspheres and developing mucoadhesive microspheres13,14.

Focus Group Research- Reliability, Validity, Replicability, Generalisability Essay

A focus group can be defined as a group interview- centered on a specific topic and facilitated and co-ordinated by a moderator or facilitator- which seeks to generate primarily qualitative data, by capitalizing on the interaction that occurs within the group setting. The idea behind the focus group method is that group processes can help people to explore and clarify their views in ways that be less easily accessible in a one to one interview. While the focus group opens up exciting analytical possibilities, it also gives rise to a number of potentially problematic issues in this respect. Definitions: Reliability- The quality of being reliable, dependable or trustworthy. Validity- The state or quality of being valid (having some foundation; based on truth) Replicability- Property of an activity, process, or test result that allows it to be duplicated at another location or time. Generalisability- Generalizability is a process in testing and statistics theory that takes a score from a sample of behaviors and applies them to the entire possible set of observations The group dynamics which take place in a focus group are central to its success. However, these interpersonal processes may cause problems in the interpretation of focus group data. One problem is that of the ‘censoring’ of dissenting views held by less confident participants within the group. The emergence of dissonant views and perspectives — what Kitzinger (1994b) calls ‘argumentative interactions’— often contributes importantly to the richness of focus group data, but may be artificially suppressed. Certain members of the group may be more assertive or articulate than others, and their views may come to dominate the proceedings; such individuals have been described as ‘thought leaders’ ( Henderson 1995). This reflects the tendency of those who find themselves in a minority to acquiesce to the majority view ( Asch 1951, Deutsch & Gerard 1955, Carey & Smith 1994). There is a further problem here. If a viewpoint which is shared by most of the group lies in one direction or other on the attitude continuum it may be exaggerated through what is known as a group polarization effect ( Turner 1991). The prevalent group viewpoint will tend to converge on the end of the continuum in question, but will also tend to be amplified in the process. In comparison, any divergent viewpoints will tend to be suppressed. Interestingly, when the topic in question is one which elicits an evaluative response from group members, Carey (1995) suggests that this convergence of viewpoint tends to be negative rather than positive. The more homogeneous the participants (which, as previously noted, is in other respects advantageous), the greater the likelihood of polarization. Another negative aspect is that the focus group output is not projectable. If a great deal of consistency in the results from a series of focus groups have been identified and it is very likely that the results from these sessions probably can represent a larger number of people. We can’t expect focus groups to be projectable in the same way as quantitative study findings can be. My last point about the disadvantages is that focus groups are a very artificial environment which can influence the responses that are generated. This is frequently the argument that ethnographers will use when recommending their methodology versus focus groups. Because researchers using the ethnographic technique will situate themselves in the real environment, that is unreachable for focus groups. In focus groups people are collected in a meeting room thus they might behave differently from how they behave when they are not watched and it will effect the quality of research results. But there is also a high number of advantages of focus group research . First of all the authority role of the moderator. The face-to-face involvement of a qualified moderator can ensure that the conversation is always on track, and encourage participants’ engagement without one individual dominating the meeting. Another point is the dynamic nature of the methodology. Due to the dynamic environment the moderator can modify the topics, which are prepared before the session to make the topic more suitable for the purpose. The Ability to involve the client personnel in the research Process is another important advantage. In traditional focus groups it is possible for the client personnel to watch the whole discussion behind a one-way mirror. The client personnel can provide their thinking to the moderator, which may help the moderator better handle the direction of discussion, and improve the quality of output. Also the capability to utilize non-verbal behavior as a research input can be useful . The expression, attitude of individual, the intensity of the conversation etc. can be perceived by the researcher, which can modify the moderator’s decision and also can be counted in the research result. Another positive aspect is the level of participant involvement in the research. Because every participant is under observation by the moderator and everybody know the process has been videotaped, it is easy to make participants fully engage even during non-discussion time. My last point is the greater security associated with focus group research. The possibility to screen each participant, lets the researcher know who have been involved. This ensures that for example your competition is not involved. (PBWorks, 2007, P. 1) Reliability of Focus Groups Reliability is the extent to which a measure (such as a focus group) is accurate and replicable. With focus groups, this could concern whether another focus group, of similar but different people, would give similar answers. Focus groups often have problems with reliability. These can be lessened if the moderator is highly trained and if questions are relatively specific. Validity of Focus Groups  Validity is the extent to which a measure measures what it purports to measure. For focus groups, this could mean whether it is reasonably certain that people are talking about what you think they are talking about. Focus groups tend to be strong on validity. ( Peter Flom, [N. D. ], P. 1) Generalizing from focus groups There are two perspectives from which the issue of generalizing from focus groups may be problematic. The first perspective sees the focus group as a sample from a target population — and thus presumably regards generalization as a legitimate goal — but recognizes a number of methodological barriers. Because focus group participants are often gathered together through a process of non-probability sampling, this will not provide the degree of representativeness of a larger population that may be achieved in, for example, some mail surveys. Furthermore, there is a tendency for the more self-confident and articulate individuals to be more willing to agree to take part in a focus group in the first place, and it may be necessary to provide inducements to encourage less forthcoming participants to come forward. The other perspective on the external validity of focus group data raises epistemological, not methodological, difficulties. This view would stress the fact that focus group data are firmly contextualized within a specific social situation. They therefore produce ‘situated’ accounts, tied to a particular context of interaction which may not be a particularly natural one for many participants. The conclusion that would seem to emerge on this issue is that generalization from focus group data is not impossible, but is of a very different nature from that displayed by orthodox quantitative approaches to research. Conclusion  The focus group has considerable potential as a means of gathering qualitative data. This potential will not, however, be realized unless due attention is paid to the problematic methodological issues to which the focus group gives rise. In this respect, the principal conclusions to arise are the following: The skills and attributes of the moderator and the manner of data recording will exert a powerful influence on the quality of the data collected in a focus group. Focus groups explore collective, not individual, phenomenology, and attempts to infer the latter from focus group data are likely to be unfounded. Focus group data may be a poor indicator of attitudinal consensus, though they may reveal a divergence of opinion and the extent to which certain issues recur across groups. Focus groups can reveal the nature and range of participants’ views, but less so their strength. Generalization from focus group data is problematic, but is likely to be more fruitful at the level of theoretical generalization than at that of empirical generalization. The use of focus groups is increasing at a faster rate than our knowledge about these qualitative research methods. Every indication , however, is that this environment is dynamically changing and will continue to do so over the next 50 years. To keep up with those changes more research on focus group methods is needed. Ultimately the best teacher is experience . Like most other research tools , proficiency comes with practice. This provides an opportunity to see a variety of groups interact and the way the moderator handles specific problems as they arise. We also have drawn attention to the limitations of focus group interviews as well as to their advantages. The greatest of the limitations associated with focus groups is that each group really represents a single observation. In the case of focus groups , the demand effects are likely to result from the composition of the group , the presence of a particularly dominant member of the group, the actions of the moderator , or some other group related factor. Thus, focus groups share many of the same limitations as many other research tools, including survey research and experimentation. The source of these limitations and problems may differ somewhat, but the problems are the same. All in all if you do it on the right way with the right tools, focus group research can be very helpful for your business to come up with new ideas and to find out the best way to act with your target groups.

The Undeniable Truth About Professional Business Writing Services That Nobody Is Sharing With You

The Undeniable Truth About Professional Business Writing Services That Nobody Is Sharing With You Professional Business Writing Services - Is it a Scam? Writing for us is the ideal way to begin earning since you don't need any setup charges. In such instances, employing a business plan writer is the most suitable choice. Your writing talent or hobby can be utilised to earn you money to assist you cover your day to day expenses. Therefore, writing a little small business program is fundamentally a method of listing down all the tasks which are involved in the day to day running of the business enterprise. It's simple to think of buying writing services but it's certainly hard to earn a choice. Simply take some time, alone time and express the way that you feel and exactly what you wish to accomplish. If you're on the lookout for business writing services, you're in the most suitable spot. The True Meaning of Professional Business Writing Services Active voice in business writing ought to be constantly employed. The first you'll need to look for is the caliber of the short article. All you need to do is to locate the suitable essay on-line support. There's many a writing service that can be found on the net, who can write your essay at quite cheap prices. The Characteristics of Professional Business Writing Services Business writing isn't simple, you require skilled individuals to train and empower marketing teams to write with more impact to draw clients to the website. Opting to publicize your business via article writing services SEO would be a distinctive and smart approach to realize high variety of readers. As a company owner, you desire a writer who can offer content that represents you. A content writer ought to be able to write excellent content and get target visitors to the website besides providing quality material for advertising and societal media. Admission writing services can help you highlight your passions and most especi ally in keeping with the themes and aims of the award. Professional writing services should have the ability to provide you different kinds of writers for various kinds of projects. Thus, if you'd like to acquire competent writers, experienced editors, and the rest of the professionals work for you, our website is your very best opportunity. While you don't need the writing rushed, you likewise do not wish to lose out on an opportunity because you don't have your documents. Writing a lengthy small business paper is a really cumbersome work. Research work does not need to be expensive for you. Students should make sure that they are receiving an excellent work. Business writing encompasses a wide variety of projects. An individual can get access to the assistance of a professional CV writer by means of a variety of ways. Our clear business writing services is developed on the premise of organisation of content logical and in the most suitable manner possible in order to ac complish sound small business papers for our clients. From small business proprietors to Fortune 500 companies, my customers receive the most suitable words at the most suitable time with the correct outcomes. Our clients can work on tight deadlines and still manage to give the client with quality work. Just continue giving and giving your company card until it's all spent. While picking out the company students should not earn price packages their priority. Finding experienced business writing providers isn't a simple job. Accurate site content writing plays a critical part in the success or failure of your venture. Professional writing services ought to have the capability to produce interesting articles to draw the attention of readers, which are potential buyers. Professional writers know just what to say in regards to a resume in addition to a cover letter. While you could always employ a professional small business plan writer, look at writing it yourself first. Wi th the aid of a professional business writing services, writing a restaurant business program will also help in income projections from sources besides the menu. There are lots of examples to be found on the world wide web, so if you are bewildered about the layout or don't know anything, just search a web-based instance of essay. Plan writing services are made available by the many writing companies that are located in the majority of states. Writing a business plan can appear to be a large, stressful project but can often be easily written with a lot of totally free resources! New Ideas Into Professional Business Writing Services Never Before Revealed Business plan writing services are offered in abundance. 27-2-2018 Who Should Attend Multilingual small business professionals who'd love to better their fundamental business writing skills. Writing agencies ought to be so well experienced that they need to understand what the business is about. Effective small business plan ning may be the key to your success. Professional small business plan writers know what can create a business plan perfect for a specific company or firm. Engaging the assistance of a professional small business writer who can create top-of-the-line copy is an attractive option to a growing number of businesses. When a student is searching for a service provider company he must make sure that the provider is not just a money maker. What you write now will influence your whole business enterprise. A superb business program can be acquired by contracting a number of business plan writing services. For example, if there are 5 representatives for the identical company in your town and you are living in a little town, you might want to reconsider or pick a different area to advertise your business to for your direct sales success. The more people carry your company card the larger advertising opportunities that you are able to get. Arrange meetings with as many men and women you know who are acquainted with businesses much like your venture.

The Academic Definition Of Immigration - 1727 Words

The academic definition of immigration is â€Å"when individuals become permanent residents or citizens of a new country .† The academic definition of slavery is â€Å"when one human being was owned by another human being .† The difference between both is that immigrants come of their own free will and slaves come because they were forced. Immigrants migrated for their own reasons including economic opportunities, religious freedom, and independence and immigrants were treated differently by different groups of people in early American history. The immigrants that migrated to the United States came from all over Europe and slaves from Africa. From Western Europe the immigrants that migrated were British, the ones that migrated were because they were poor. The Germans migrated for the same reason as the British. The Irish later came because of their problem with food. The Chinese in far Eastern Europe just migrated to the United States. Most slaves that were captured and forced to move came from Africa. Immigrants migrated to the United States because there was more economic opportunity for immigrants. According to hstry for education â€Å"North America promised cheap land and freedom of enterprise .† Merriam-Webster states that freedom of enterprise means â€Å"a system in which private businesses are able to compete with each other with little control by the government .† Freedom of enterprise let the immigrants be business owners. The government regulated large businesses, but not smallShow MoreRelatedThe Issue Of Immigration Throughout The United States1502 Words   |  7 PagesSince our country’s founding, the topic of immigration has been deliberated amongst many scholars. The question of who has the right to come to the United States and what they are entitled to after their arrival has been an ongoing discussion amongst various academic disciplines. More so recently, since the vast majority of the immigrant population has become concerned with their ri ghts to higher education. For this reason, the discussion on immigration has become a hot topic amongst the AmericanRead MoreSocial And Academic Performance Of Undocumented Mexican Women Essay1014 Words   |  5 PagesI. Definition of Project For my research, I propose a literature analysis of feelings of guilt, anxiety and sense of separation from social inclusion and the family of undocumented Mexican women in contemporary period. In my research I plan to address the following questions: What propels guilt, anxiety and sense of separation in undocumented Mexican women, specially undocumented female Mexican students? How does intersectionalities and the Critical Race Theory play a role to address this issuesRead MoreReforming Immigration Reform732 Words   |  3 PagesReforming Immigration Reform Problem Definition In what could arguably have been the shot heard around the world during the 2012 election year, President Obama in June issued an executive order suspending deportations of low-priority undocumented immigrants under the age of 30 (Office of the Press Secretary, 2012). The order targeted young Hispanics who had been brought to the United States by their parents years ago, the so-called Dreamers. During the rest of the campaign, Obama spent considerableRead MoreImmigrants From Latin America s Annexation Of Mexico Essay1544 Words   |  7 Pages Historically, Latinos have struggled against ethnic labeling, immigration as well challenges surrounding education. This can traced back to mid-19th century when according to Harvest of Empire America’s annexation of Mexico which gave the United States Texas, California, and the southwest. â€Å"Mexico’s territory was cut by half and its mineral resources by three-quarters. These appalling numbers help explain so much. In fa ct, you can arguably lay Mexico’s poverty and loss through emigration rightRead MoreThe Attitudes Of Minority And Immigration929 Words   |  4 PagesFor my investigative assignment on the conceptions of minority and immigration, I have interviewed three people whom I interviewed separately for better and credible results. They are all Asian Americans and two of them are American born and one of them is a foreign born but has a permanent resident status. When I asked them what they think when they hear the word â€Å"minority,† all three of my interviewees answered as groups of people who are not white. Though one interviewee, whom I will address asRead MoreThe DACA Program ( Deferred Action For Childhood Arrivals963 Words   |  4 PagesDACA termination with an email to the entire Brandeis community, claiming that the decision by the Trump administration â€Å"is very upsetting† and that it â€Å"undermines the academic endeavors of our own students, and is contrary to our basic values.† Liebowitz also assured that Brandeis is â€Å"consulting† with other universities and immigration attorneys to make sure that â€Å"our undocumented students [stay] safe and in school.† Not only has Liebowitz responded to the entire Brandeis community, but in a letterRead MoreDream Big; DREAM Act Essay1270 Words   |  6 PagesTo many people the word immigration simply means the passing or coming into a country for the purpose of permanent residence (Definition). But to undocumented students, commonly referred as Dreamers, it signifies a meaning of fear, family separation, job loss, different language and loss of hope after graduation. These students go through elementary, middle and high schools doing what their parents tell them which is to be the best, get straight As, and work hard, however; at the end none ofRead MoreThe Growing Prison Industrial Complex1700 Words   |  7 Pages The growing Prison Industrial Complex is an intricate web of profit-maximizing business endeavors at the expense of the livelihood of people of color in the continental United States and abroad. With immigration from Mexico and Latin America increasing each year and definitions of who is â€Å"legal† becoming more constricting as the Obama administration cracking down on illegal border crossing, undocumented immigrants are the fastest growing prison population. This research projects aims to look howRead MoreWhiteness and Citizenship971 Words   |  4 Pagesmore palatable to the freedom loving Americans. Despite the symbolical importance of racial definitions the concept of whiteness was very unclear during the colonial and early republican times. That changed radically in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, when immigration forced the courts to define what constituted the white race. The American naturalization laws in 1790 placed no limits to immigration, but it made it a requirement that only â€Å"free white persons† of â€Å"good moral character† withRead MoreThe Economic Impact Of Illegal Immigration1603 Words   |  7 PagesAbstract This paper examines the economic impact of illegal immigration in the United States. This country was built with the help of millions of legally admitted immigrants, however today illegal immigration is a controversial topic. Despite the illegal status, millions of men and women work and contribute to local, state and national economies. An accepted idea is that most of the illegal immigrants cross the Mexico-US border, therefore most of the illegal immigrants should be Mexicans or from