The Key to Understanding Political Development

Introduction The phrase ‘political development’ lacks a universal form of definition due to its versatility in terms of the elements that it encompasses.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Key to Understanding Political Development specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More In essence, political development comprises institutional changes in a society’s system of governance, society’s attitude towards such changes, and the political culture of a country or state. Other elements that aid in the definition of the term include social and cultural adaptability to change, economic progress, policy development, state sovereignty, and constitutional order. The key to understanding all the individual elements lies in comparative analyses of a specific political entity or a comparison among several entities with significant similarities or differences. This paper conducts such analyses by taking into acc ount various states for case studies, viz., England, Rwanda, and Russia. This analysis views political development as an independent component, and thus, it explores the possibility of its connection to other components such as economic development and social culture. This paper also highlights the influence of political development in terms of advancements or lack thereof.Advertising Looking for essay on political sciences? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Assessment through state sovereignty and changes in political culture When describing countries or nations, sovereignty refers to the state of being a separate entity independent of all others in terms of laws, methods of governance, and the source of power for the ruling institutions (Biersteker Weber 1996). Several theories describe the formation of states and reasons for sovereignty, with the most prominent being the social contract theory. The theory states that a count ry derives its independence from the people through their choice of leadership and following form of government. In essence, the will of the people is sovereign (Kreijen 2002). Although the theory’s central aspect is the presence of a social contract between the ruling individuals or institutions and their subjects, different scholars have developed variations of the theory to highlight certain elements. According to Thomas Hobbes, in a state or nature, the only rule that governs human interaction is self-preservation (Krasner 2001). As such, the strong overlook the needs of the weak and lack of order makes life short and brutish. Hobbes explains that in order for everyone to survive, people formed societies where they agreed to surrender their power to an individual or a group of individuals who exercise it for the good of everyone. In Hobbes’ version of the theory, when people surrender their power to their leader of choice, the leader has the right to utilise it in whatever manner in the achievement of society’s development (Boucher Kelly 1994). Hobbes adds that such power is irrevocable. This theory describes the concept of absolutism, whereby a leader reigns supreme over the subjects, thus exercising unquestionable authority.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Key to Understanding Political Development specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Hierarchical systems of governance embody this theory best, with a good example being England in the early years of the twelfth century after the death of King Henry I all through to the twentieth century during the reign of King Edward VII. During this period, kings and queens wielded absolute power over every aspect of the society, including the economy and even religion. King Edward VII denounced the Roman Catholic Church’s supervisory power by declaring himself the absolute ruler in all matters, including religious aspec ts. The wellbeing of the rulers came first, which sometimes coincided with the will of the people. For instance, for a king to appear powerful to leaders in neighbouring countries, s/he had to secure economic prosperity for his or her country, thus coinciding with the need of the people to have a strong economy. However, to some extent, such form of leadership was necessary given the nation’s turbulent history, especially during the Anarchy period between 1135 and 1154. Certain aspects of the England’s system of governance have changed since then, thus forming part of its political development. The main notable change in the England’s form of government is its characteristic devolution of power and inclusion of other institutions to form part of the government. Currently, the government of England has three branches, namely the executive, legislature, and the judiciary.Advertising Looking for essay on political sciences? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Unlike in the early twentieth century where the monarch had all the powers, each of the branches possesses a share of the government’s collective power of governance. Although the Queen still possesses the most significant share of the power, the Prime Minister runs most government affairs in the government for the executive branch on behalf of the Queen. The Prime Minister assumes the responsibility of appointing cabinet ministers and making policies with the aid of the cabinet of which he is the chair. The legislature comprises two houses, viz. the House of Lords and the House of Commons, and this aspect ensures objectivity in policy development and guarantees representation of the people’s needs during the policy-making process. The judiciary, â€Å"as the third arm of the government, is independent of both the executive and the legislature† (Blaug Schwarzmantle 2001, p.83). The importance of such independence is to ensure that the judiciary provides checks and balances over the executive and the legislature. The fact that England’s laws are unwritten emphasises the need for such judicial independence, which ensures that the other arms of the government avoid the misuse of power to the detriment of the people. A comparative analysis between England and the international political scene displays the advancements that England has made as a nation through the years, especially in relation to its consideration of the people’s will during the policy-making process. Judicial independence ensures that courts have the ability to express the will of the people through the protection of political, social, and cultural traditions that they hold dear. For instance, although divorce is legal in both England and Wales, the courts ensure the protection of the institution of marriage as one of the moral values that the people treasure by providing a process that requires a married couple to work on the marriage before resorting to divorc e. The courts usually grant divorces in cases of an irretrievable breakdown in marriages and provide an option for judicial separation. John Locke presents another version of the social contract theory with significant differences to Hobbes’. In Locke’s version, human beings are inherently social and moral in their state of nature. However, some people choose to make decisions that adversely affect others, especially in relation to property ownership, thus creating the need for an institution that equally protects every person’s interest. Locke explains that people relinquish a portion of their power to govern their dealings with other individuals to a leader or institution of the people’s choice, but they keep a significant portion to themselves (Boucher Kelly 1994). The leader or institution holds such power in trust of the people and applies it for their best interest while the people retain the option to choose another leader in case of misappropriat ion. This version of the theory matches a democratic system, to which most countries prescribe. A democratic system is a form of government that allows its citizens to participate in the law-making process by electing leaders of their choice as their representatives in government. One of the most dominant elements in a democratic state is the provision for a multiparty system. Apart from providing citizens with a variety of leaders with different visions for leadership to choose from, multiparty systems provide individuals with an idea for development with the opportunity to realise their goals for the good of society (Blaug Schwarzmantle 2001). The concept bares international acceptance as most of its elements support development in society, politically, socially, and economically, not to mention fostering international relations. In the furtherance of democracy, countries have the option to choose countries to associate with depending on a country’s national goals and the balance between the merits and demerits of such association. Developing countries in Africa and Asia form some of the best examples of political development involving democratic systems. Numerous countries in Africa have developed politically from dictatorships to democracies with significant gains, both socially and economically. A case study of Uganda best explains this dynamic. In the period between 1971 and 1979, Uganda was under the presidency of Idi Amin, as a dictator who declared himself president for life until his deposition. The declaration-limited choice of leadership for Uganda’s people at the time, as there could only be one leader with the law on his side to support it. One of the main disadvantages of a dictatorship is that it provides the dictator with a leeway to do whatever he or she deems fit without regard to the welfare of the people or consequences of his or her actions from the international community (Gandhi 2008). Idi Amin, for instance, committed hu man rights violations that made him infamous in the international community, thus resulting in negative feedback economically to the detriment of the Ugandan citizens. No institutions existed to provide checks and balances for the president’s exercise of power, which created room for its misappropriation, hence leading to the oppression of the people (Hansen Twaddle 1998). Although the president understood the needs of his people in all aspects, his corrupt nature made sure that he concentrated on his own needs, including amassing wealth and ignoring the plight of the people. A change in the political system in Uganda is one of the indicators of the presence and level of political development in the country. Under a democratically elected president, Yoweri Kaguta Museveni, Uganda’s exercise of democracy has facilitated its economic and social growth, thus creating a different perspective of it in the international scene. Devolution of power through the creation of gov ernment institutions such as the judiciary and the legislature has ensured balance in the exercise of power by creating limitations that prevent its misuse. Also, the multiparty system provides people with a chance to choose leaders that best represent their interests in the government (Hansen Twaddle 1998). Unlike the western countries, most African countries are ethnically diverse. Therefore, a democratic system ensures the representation of every individual’s unique needs in the government during the policy-making process by the legislature. By providing people with a chance to choose their representatives from various ethnic backgrounds, a democratic system creates an avenue for the unification of people through the formations of laws that serve everyone equally through fair distribution of resources. Changes in attitude Change in attitude on political ideology is part of the definition of political development. Mostly, international attitudes towards various political a spects form the integral basis of political attitudes in individual nations regarding the same (Markell 2003). For instance, the international community regards the issue of human rights observation as an indicator of political development. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights and Freedoms is one of the primary documents in the application for human rights regulation. The rules set out in the international statute act as guides for countries when setting out their national laws on human rights regulation. The statute sets out â€Å"some of the most basic human rights, including the right to life, health, and education† (Harris et al. 2010, p.77). Although it is not mandatory for any country to apply such international rules, the attitude around it is that countries that fail to do so indicate a lack in the political arena, which may cause certain sanctions that usually affect economic progress. For instance, the international community frowned upon North Korea’s p olicies on human rights issues during the reign of President Kim Jong Il. Although the North Korean government at the time provided free healthcare and education, the quality of both amenities was poor, thus leading to a high mortality rate in the country. In addition, the government greatly restricted its citizens’ freedom of movement and association, hence resulting in limited political development and subsequently denying its citizens a chance to experience other cultures or share ideas due to the fear of emancipation (Demick 2009). Such restrictive ideology resulted in limited trade opportunities for the country internationally. Another country that forms an excellent example of how the international community applies political attitude as a test and indicator of political development is Saudi Arabia. Islam forms the main foundation of Saudi Arabia’s laws, which has been the case for many years. However, during the reign of Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan, betwee n 1966 and 2004, the leadership’s attitude towards acceptance of other religions changed resulting in a more tolerant nation that accepts the practice of Christianity as long as it does not interfere with the nation’s fundamental Islamic cultural practices. Incorporation of this attitude into law has enabled expatriates to works harmoniously with the local Muslim community resulting in a thriving nation. The international attitude regarding freedom of religions forms a huge part of influence leading to such a decision, even though the necessity to attract workforce from outside the country’s borders was the main reason for the decision. The international effect of the decision was mainly the expansion of Saudi Arabia’s market and improvement of its foreign relations with other countries that may not necessarily share Islamic foundations (House 2012). Therefore, although the decision to include acceptance of other religions into the country was an indicati on of attitude change, it also indicated political development of the country. Process of analysis During an analysis to establish the status of a nation’s political development, it is vital to consider cultural backgrounds and political histories. These aspects result in a difference in choices in policy-making that culminates either in progressive or retrogressive political development. For instance, England and Saudi Arabia exhibit significant differences culturally, economically, and politically, which may inform the choice of policies that govern the two states (Heywood 2012). Leadership succession Leadership succession involves passing power from one leader or government institution to another. As a component of political development, transition of leadership should be effective and systematic without creating power vacuums that may lead to civil warfare. In any politically developed nation, terms of leadership are clear and they form part of the country’s consti tutional laws. Such terms include the period of leadership, circumstances that may result in shorter or longer terms of office, and measures that take care of situations whereby a leader’s term in office ends abruptly. An excellent example of how lack of proper policies may cause political instability is the period of civil warfare in England between the years 1135 and 1154 following the death of King Henry I (Scott 2000). Power struggle engulfed the region, which resulted in a war that lasted years due to the lack of a legitimate heir to the crown. Conclusion Although the term political development lacks a universal definition, various elements constitute its main characteristics. Some of the main elements include state sovereignty, reliable succession procedures, political culture, and attitude towards policies. Several methods exist for the establishment of the presence or absence of political development, including an analysis of a country’s political history and a comparative analysis between different political ideologies internationally. However, in conducting such analysis, it is essential to consider that different states subscribe to different rules, and thus one may need to consider aspects such as culture, as is the case with Saudi Arabia and the East African country of Uganda. A government’s policy-making mechanism forms the determining factor in deciding the impact such policies have on its people and its relation with other nations in the international community. Most people-based policies have the effect of fostering political development by creating a ripple effect on the social and economic development of the nation. Reference List Biersteker, T Weber, C 1996, State Sovereignty as Social Construct, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Blaug, R Schwarzmantle, J 2001, Democracy: A Reader, Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh. Boucher, D Kelly, P 1994, The Social Contract from Hobbes to Rawls, Routledge, New York. Demi ck, B 2009, Nothing to Envy: Real Lives in North Korea, Granta Publications, London. Gandhi, J 2008, Political Institutions Under Dictatorship, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Hansen, H Twaddle, M 1998, Developing Uganda (Eastern African Studies), Ohio University Press, Athens. Harris, D, Moeckli, D, Shah, S Suvakumaran, S 2010, International Human Rights Law, Oxford University Press, Oxford. Heywood, A 2012, Political Ideologies: An Introduction, Palgrave, Basingstoke. House, E 2012, On Saudi Arabia: Its People, Past, Religion, Fault Lines and Future, Knopf Publishing, New York. Krasner, D 2001, Problematic Sovereignty, Columbia University Press, New York. Kreijen, G 2002, State, Sovereignty, and International Governance, Oxford University Press, Oxford. Markell, P 2003, Bound by Recognition, Princeton, New Jersey. Scott, J 2000, England’s Troubles: Seventeenth Century English Political Instability in European Context, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. This essay on The Key to Understanding Political Development was written and submitted by user Hulkl1ng to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Sensory Disabilities and Age of Onset

Sensory Disabilities and Age of Onset Sensory disability refers to the impairment in seeing or hearing. As per Specialist Schools and Academies Trust (2010):Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Sensory Disabilities and Age of Onset specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The sensory impairment encompasses both visual loss (including blindness and partial sight), hearing loss (including the whole range) and multisensory (which means having a diagnosed visual and hearing impairment with at least loss in each of the modalities or deaf-blindness) (p.1) As a result of this, students who are sensory impaired may be affected in a number of ways in regards to their learning. For instance, the rate at which they advance academically may be slowed down significantly because of the difficulties they undergo in accessing the necessary information. They may also not be able to communicate appropriately with their peers and teachers about the knowledge they have acquired in clas s. Inability to move, and connected with it restrictions is another challenge that they are likely to encounter because of obvious reasons. The student may also suffer socially as he/she may not be able to interact freely with others due to fear arising from mocking at peers. â€Å"Their self esteem, particularly if learners experience negative attitudes and stereotyping may also suffer as a result (Effective practice Guides, 2011, p. 6) Teaching the Sensory Impaired Using Assistive Technology (AT) Due to the above stated problems, various advancements in technology have been made to help the affected learner. The problem, however, is that each student has a different problem and, as such, requires a different style and approach if he/she is to be helped academically. Different assistive technologies are as well applied in countering these cases.Advertising Looking for essay on education? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More For visual impairment cases, for example, print media materials, magnified computer images and information, screen readers and Braille can be used to help the visually disabled to screen hearing aids, FM systems, and speech to text translation devices that can also be employed when dealing with the students with hearing difficulties. Use of the AT Devices to Teach Language Arts Language teaching involves training learners on how to use a given language both in speech and written form. Magnified computer images can be used especially where the visual problem is congenital, in other words, where the student has visual memory or where the student involved still uses his vision as the primary way of reading. Through this, words and names on monitor screens can be accompanied with images for language learning. Speech to text translation devices can be used to directly transmit a teacher’s voice to a receptive screen for those who have hearing impairment in reading lessons, fo r example. Braille can be used for reading purposes for those who are visually impaired. Age of Onset As earlier stated, learners’ problems vary. To encounter them effectively a teacher has to individualize his approach based on the learner’s studying style. â€Å"Knowing if the student has a congenital or adventitious sensory loss affects how students will gain access to the instruction† (Beard, et al, 2011, p. 142). This is due to the fact that the presence or lack of hearing or visual memory will highly influence which type of style and AT is to be employed for a particular student.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Sensory Disabilities and Age of Onset specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The style the teacher will utilize in his/her interaction with the learner will also be influenced by the subject taught. Style and AT used in mathematics and sciences will obviously be different from the one emp loyed in language and arts classes, for instance. The learner’s preference, however, should be given a key consideration. It is also important to take these kinds of students away from the others where a teacher realizes that the student will encounter problems in adapting in order to help them avoid the likely embarrassment that they may undergo in class. This can happen, for instance, when learning the subject that call for lots of diagrams, figures and illustrations to be applied, which may also give a challenge to the visually impaired students. References Beard, L.A. , Carpenter, L.B and Johnson, L.B(2011). Assistive Technology. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education Inc. Effective practice guide.(2011). Understanding visual impairment in learners and young people. RNIB: Supporting Blind and Partially Sighted People , 1-7, Retrieved from https://www.rnib.org.uk/services-we-offer-advice-professionals-education-professionals/guidance-teaching-and-learning Specialist Sch ools and Academies Trust (2010). Complex Learning difficulties research project. International Networking for Educational Transformation,1-8. Web.

NaNoWriMo 2019 How to FINALLY Write Your 30-Day Novel

NaNoWriMo 2019 How to FINALLY Write Your 30-Day Novel 30 Days, 41 Tips: How to Win NaNoWriMo 2018 Another November, another chance to break a lifetime of bad habits and write that novel you always knew was inside you. For those out of the loop,  National Novel Writing Month  (or NaNoWriMo) is an annual competition where writers must write a 50,000-word novel in 30 days (hence, the name).It sounds intense, but  thousands of writers take part in each year. Not only like, but many of the drafts writing during NaNoWriMo over the years have turned into bestsellers - like Hugh Howey's Wool and  Sara Gruen's Water for Elephants.Whether you're a  NaNo  virgin or a  WriMo  veteran, you can always do with a helping hand and some top advice. To help you with this year's competition here are 41 Top NaNoWriMo tips from authors and editors:Are you a NaNoWriMo veteran? If you have any advice for writers about to take part in the competition, please share it in the comments below.

Describe the neurophysiological bases of Alzheimers disease Essay

Describe the neurophysiological bases of Alzheimers disease - Essay Example Behavioural symptoms—such as psychosis, agitation, depression, and wandering—are common and impose tremendous strain on caregivers. Diagnosis is challenging because of the lack of biological markers, insidious onset, and need to exclude other causes of dementia. (Mental Health, 1) Dementia is a prominent healthcare issue for primary care physicians and specialist services. Over 90% of patients with dementia experience a â€Å"behaviour disturbance,† often referred to as behavioural or psychological signs in dementia in accordance with the recommendation of the International Psycho geriatric Association. These symptoms are distressing to patients and troublesome to carers and often precipitate admission to residential facilities. What is the evidence that any of the several drugs that are currently used to treat these symptoms are effective? Managing the behavioural and psychological signs of dementia is a major problem for healthcare professionals. Narcoleptic drugs are the mainstay of pharmacological treatment, although their use is justified largely on the basis of clinical anecdote, and they have many harmful side effects. These include Parkinsonism, drowsiness, tardive dyskinesia, falls, accelerated cognitive decline, and severe narcoleptic sensitivity reactions. It is therefore not surprising that the chief medical officer has recommended judicious use of these agents in patients with dementia. In 1990 Schneider published a landmark study showing the paucity of large, placebo controlled, double blind trials of narcoleptic agents in treating behavioural and psychological signs in dementia. Since then research in the subject has increased, but most treatment studies have used an open or active comparison design, a major methodological flaw given the high placebo response rates (40%). Two large multi-centre studies with

The prevention of Obesity in Childhood Term Paper

The prevention of Obesity in Childhood - Term Paper Example Obese children tend to suffer from some symptom of attention deficit Hyperactivity Disorders (ADHD). Childhood obesity is a major worldwide concern especially in the developed countries and now are reaching epidemic proportions (Dehghan et al,2005). The prevalence rate is increasing worldwide and has been growing rapidly in the recent years(Procter , 2007). Therefore, this increase is considered a very critical issue by global public health authorities(Jones et al ,2008: North Ireland centre for diet and health,2001). In US the prevalence of obesity among children increased between year 1973 to 1994 by 11%. While, between 1999 and 2000 obesity increased by just 4%(Dehghan et al,2005).On the other hand 27.6% of American children and adolescents aged 2 through 19 years were overweight or obese between 2003 and 2006(Maryer, 2009). Similarly the UK saw a rise in the rate of childhood obesity from 8% to 20% between the years 1984 to 1993(Dehghan et al,2005). So, childhood obesity has been observed in the developed countries and developing countries as well. Moreover, childhood obesity i s high in the Middle East and Eastern Europe. According to Dehghan et al (2005), one in every six children aged between 6 and 18 years old is obese in Saudi Arabia. Obesity is defined as "an excess of body fat The World Health Organization (WHO) defines "overweight" as a BMI more than 25 or equal , and "obesity" as a BMI more than 30 or equal. The exact reason for obesity is not fully understood and it is believed to be a disorder with multiple causes. For instance environmental factors, lifestyle favorites, and cultural environment play crucial roles. In general obesity is assumed to be the results of an increase in caloric and fat intake. It is known many food favorites responsible for these caloric and fat intakes. Such as excessive sugar intake by soft drinks, increased portion size, fast foods, and steady decline in physical activity have been playing major roles in the rising rates of obesity all around the world. Thus, both over-consumption of calories and reduced physical activity are involved in childhood obesity. Knowing a child's BMI (Body Mass Index) can help you find the kids who are at risk of becoming overweight. 2. Analysis Childhood obesity can be defined as a condition where excessive body fat negatively affected on a children's health and wellbeing. Thus due to the increasingly rising prevalence of obesity in children and its many adverse effects on healthy life, it is being identified as one of the growing and major public health issues in the world. In fact strong evidence on the subject suggests that over the billions of children are overweight and obesity. The evidence clarifies and argues the importance of prevention of childhood obesity. The overall aim of this review is to investigate and examine the effectiveness of varying interventions to prevent childhood obesity in terms of either from healthy lifestyle education, or by combining the effects of both dietary education interventions and physical activity interventions to prevent obesity in childhood. This aim will be achieved through two specific clear targets. The first one is to evaluate the effectiveness of dietary education interventio ns versus control. The second one is intended to assess the action of the combined impact for both of dietary educat

Comparison of Drug Delivery Systems

Comparison of Drug Delivery Systems 1. INTRODUCTION 1.1. Current Status of Drug Delivery Systems During the past two decades, Drug development technology in Pharmaceutical Industry with innovations in formulation development have received a lot of attention. Drug delivery as an opportunity to extend product life cycles has indeed proved its place in the market with significant advantages of therapeutic gains as well as commercial success. In India drug development technology is still in nascent stage with academia and research institutes collaboration as main stay of the development of novel products. The main motto of Indian companies, in the development of newer pharmaceutical formulations by using NCE in order to achieve by providing cost effective, therapeutically effective with short term and long term options. While development in the oral route is still the main focus, pulmonary, cutaneous, transdermal and other multiple routes are gaining increased attention1. The application of modern technology in the field of drugs administered via oral, parenteral, pulmonary and intra-ocular finds a newer, better than the conventional dosage forms is an important era in the drug delivery. The health scenario in India demands Novel Drug Delivery Systems (NDDS) for more than 20 diseases and conditions for which rationale for such system is established. More than half of these conditions are prevalent in India and other developing and under-developing countries only and offer a great challenge and opportunity for the Indian Pharmaceutical Industry2. A number of drug delivery platform technologies currently exist that may be adapted to various drug molecules to yield superior medicines. Such medicines while offering obvious benefits to patients will also generate a more stable and patent protected revenue stream3. Although the drug delivery concept is not new, a great progress has recently been done in the treatment of variety of diseases. Targeting delivery of the drugs to the lesions and controlling the release rate at the site of action is the most important aspect of Drug Delivery System. Research is being carried out throughout the world at a great place, devising strategies for drug delivery to overcome biological barriers and the physiochemical properties of the modern drugs. Above all the prominence of drug delivery systems can be understood by the variety that out of the $250 billion worldwide value of pharmaceuticals, 10% is attributed to it4. In this context controlled drug delivery along with targeted drug delivery forms the essence of modern and future drug delivery systems. 1.2. Controlled Drug Delivery Systems As the name implies, CDDS serves two functions. First it involves transport of the drug to particular part of the body and the second function is that of the controlled release. The main advantages of Controlled drug delivery systems are: Maintenance of optimum therapeutic drug concentration in the blood with minimum fluctuations. Predictable and reproducible delivery for extended duration. Enhancement of activation duration for short half life drugs. Minimizes the side effects. Reduce the frequent dosing. Reduce the wastage of drug. Better patient compliance. 1.2.1. Oral Controlled drug Delivery Systems Oral controlled release technology was evolved with matrix technology. Several research papers in the 1950s and 1960s reported as simple matrix tablets or monolithic granules. In 1952, a new formulation â€Å"spansule† a timed- release formulation was introduced by Smith Kline French which launched a widespread search for other applications in the design of dosage forms. Advances in oral controlled release technology are attributed to the development of novel biocompatible polymers and machineries that allow preparation of novel design dosage forms in a reproducible manner5. For controlled release systems, the oral route has by far received most attention and success because of the fact that gastro-intestinal physiology offers more flexibility in dosage form design than other routes6. Apart from that owing to patient acceptance, convenience of administration, cost-effective manufacturing, and generally long product shelf-life is a continuous emphasis to develop oral formulati ons will persist. Some of the marketed oral controlled release products were listed in table no.1.1. Table No. 1.1. Marketed oral controlled release products7 1.2.2. Particulate Oral Drug Delivery System In any drug delivery system the use of carriers to convey a certain dose of the drug is important as drug itself. Various carrier systems in application till date are macromolecular drug carriers, micellar systems, liposomes, red cells and microparticulates. These were used to carry a wide variety of pharmaceutical agents in a number of different therapeutic situations. Among these chiefly microparticulate carriers has been accounted for an important potential application in the administration of therapeutic molecules such as sustained drug delivery in cancer and infectious disease or for the administration of gut labile drugs8. Moreover, due to their size microparticulates are not usually administered through intravenous routes but via alternate routes. Thus, inclusion of drugs in microparticulate carriers clearly holds significant promise for the improvement in the therapy of several disease categories. They serve many purposes9 such as: Protecting the incorporated components from degradation Controlling drug release Increasing adjuvancy Targeting to the specific sites. Due to the unique physiological conditions in the GI tract, the particulate systems are required to meet the following criteria before they can be used as effective oral delivery vehicles10. Firstly they should be resistant to undergo degradation in GI tract. The encapsulated drug in the particles need to be absorbed with high efficiency in GI tract to be therapeutically effective. Currently it is believed that, less than 1% of the particles can be absorbed after oral administration. 1.3. Biodegradable polymers and Mucoadhesion Mucoadhesive polymers Mucoadhesive polymers11 have properties to get adhered to the mucus membrane and hence capable of prolonging the contact time of the drug with a body tissue. The use of mucoadhesive polymers can significantly improve the performance of many drugs. This improvement ranges from better treatment of local pathologies to improved bioavailability and controlled release to enhance patient compliance. Ideal characteristics of mucoadhesive polymers12 It should be able to accommodate both oil and water soluble drugs for the purpose of controlled drug delivery. It should possess an optimum molecular weight to the mucoadhesive. It should demonstrate local enzyme inhibition and penetration enhancement properties. It should show specificity for attachment to an area or cellular site. It should show specificity and stimulate endocytosis. It should be inert and compatible with the environment. It should be easy and inexpensive to fabricate. It should have good mechanical strength. It should possess a wide margin of safety both locally and systemically. Microspheres can be defined as solid, approximately spherical particles ranging in size from 1 to 1000 ÃŽ ¼m. They are made of polymeric, waxy or other protective materials, i.e. biodegradable synthetic polymers and modified natural products such as starches, gums, proteins, fats and waxes. Microspheres are small and have large surface to volume ratio. At the lower end of their size range they have colloidal properties. The interfacial properties of microspheres are extremely important, often dictating their activity. Microparticles are of two types Microcapsules: The entrapped substance is completely surrounded by a distinct capsule wall. Microspheres: The entrapped substance is dispersed throughout the microsphere matrix are shown in the Fig: 1.1. Fig: 1.1. Differentiation between microcapsules and microspheres Microsphere carrier systems made from the naturally occurring biodegradable polymers have attracted considerable attention for several years in sustained drug delivery. However, due to short residence time at the site of absorption, the success of these microspheres is limited. By providing the drug delivery system a means of intimate contact with the absorbing membrane, these delivery systems would be advantageous which can be achieved by coupling mucoadhesion characteristics to microspheres and developing mucoadhesive microspheres13,14.

Focus Group Research- Reliability, Validity, Replicability, Generalisability Essay

A focus group can be defined as a group interview- centered on a specific topic and facilitated and co-ordinated by a moderator or facilitator- which seeks to generate primarily qualitative data, by capitalizing on the interaction that occurs within the group setting. The idea behind the focus group method is that group processes can help people to explore and clarify their views in ways that be less easily accessible in a one to one interview. While the focus group opens up exciting analytical possibilities, it also gives rise to a number of potentially problematic issues in this respect. Definitions: Reliability- The quality of being reliable, dependable or trustworthy. Validity- The state or quality of being valid (having some foundation; based on truth) Replicability- Property of an activity, process, or test result that allows it to be duplicated at another location or time. Generalisability- Generalizability is a process in testing and statistics theory that takes a score from a sample of behaviors and applies them to the entire possible set of observations The group dynamics which take place in a focus group are central to its success. However, these interpersonal processes may cause problems in the interpretation of focus group data. One problem is that of the ‘censoring’ of dissenting views held by less confident participants within the group. The emergence of dissonant views and perspectives — what Kitzinger (1994b) calls ‘argumentative interactions’— often contributes importantly to the richness of focus group data, but may be artificially suppressed. Certain members of the group may be more assertive or articulate than others, and their views may come to dominate the proceedings; such individuals have been described as ‘thought leaders’ ( Henderson 1995). This reflects the tendency of those who find themselves in a minority to acquiesce to the majority view ( Asch 1951, Deutsch & Gerard 1955, Carey & Smith 1994). There is a further problem here. If a viewpoint which is shared by most of the group lies in one direction or other on the attitude continuum it may be exaggerated through what is known as a group polarization effect ( Turner 1991). The prevalent group viewpoint will tend to converge on the end of the continuum in question, but will also tend to be amplified in the process. In comparison, any divergent viewpoints will tend to be suppressed. Interestingly, when the topic in question is one which elicits an evaluative response from group members, Carey (1995) suggests that this convergence of viewpoint tends to be negative rather than positive. The more homogeneous the participants (which, as previously noted, is in other respects advantageous), the greater the likelihood of polarization. Another negative aspect is that the focus group output is not projectable. If a great deal of consistency in the results from a series of focus groups have been identified and it is very likely that the results from these sessions probably can represent a larger number of people. We can’t expect focus groups to be projectable in the same way as quantitative study findings can be. My last point about the disadvantages is that focus groups are a very artificial environment which can influence the responses that are generated. This is frequently the argument that ethnographers will use when recommending their methodology versus focus groups. Because researchers using the ethnographic technique will situate themselves in the real environment, that is unreachable for focus groups. In focus groups people are collected in a meeting room thus they might behave differently from how they behave when they are not watched and it will effect the quality of research results. But there is also a high number of advantages of focus group research . First of all the authority role of the moderator. The face-to-face involvement of a qualified moderator can ensure that the conversation is always on track, and encourage participants’ engagement without one individual dominating the meeting. Another point is the dynamic nature of the methodology. Due to the dynamic environment the moderator can modify the topics, which are prepared before the session to make the topic more suitable for the purpose. The Ability to involve the client personnel in the research Process is another important advantage. In traditional focus groups it is possible for the client personnel to watch the whole discussion behind a one-way mirror. The client personnel can provide their thinking to the moderator, which may help the moderator better handle the direction of discussion, and improve the quality of output. Also the capability to utilize non-verbal behavior as a research input can be useful . The expression, attitude of individual, the intensity of the conversation etc. can be perceived by the researcher, which can modify the moderator’s decision and also can be counted in the research result. Another positive aspect is the level of participant involvement in the research. Because every participant is under observation by the moderator and everybody know the process has been videotaped, it is easy to make participants fully engage even during non-discussion time. My last point is the greater security associated with focus group research. The possibility to screen each participant, lets the researcher know who have been involved. This ensures that for example your competition is not involved. (PBWorks, 2007, P. 1) Reliability of Focus Groups Reliability is the extent to which a measure (such as a focus group) is accurate and replicable. With focus groups, this could concern whether another focus group, of similar but different people, would give similar answers. Focus groups often have problems with reliability. These can be lessened if the moderator is highly trained and if questions are relatively specific. Validity of Focus Groups  Validity is the extent to which a measure measures what it purports to measure. For focus groups, this could mean whether it is reasonably certain that people are talking about what you think they are talking about. Focus groups tend to be strong on validity. ( Peter Flom, [N. D. ], P. 1) Generalizing from focus groups There are two perspectives from which the issue of generalizing from focus groups may be problematic. The first perspective sees the focus group as a sample from a target population — and thus presumably regards generalization as a legitimate goal — but recognizes a number of methodological barriers. Because focus group participants are often gathered together through a process of non-probability sampling, this will not provide the degree of representativeness of a larger population that may be achieved in, for example, some mail surveys. Furthermore, there is a tendency for the more self-confident and articulate individuals to be more willing to agree to take part in a focus group in the first place, and it may be necessary to provide inducements to encourage less forthcoming participants to come forward. The other perspective on the external validity of focus group data raises epistemological, not methodological, difficulties. This view would stress the fact that focus group data are firmly contextualized within a specific social situation. They therefore produce ‘situated’ accounts, tied to a particular context of interaction which may not be a particularly natural one for many participants. The conclusion that would seem to emerge on this issue is that generalization from focus group data is not impossible, but is of a very different nature from that displayed by orthodox quantitative approaches to research. Conclusion  The focus group has considerable potential as a means of gathering qualitative data. This potential will not, however, be realized unless due attention is paid to the problematic methodological issues to which the focus group gives rise. In this respect, the principal conclusions to arise are the following: The skills and attributes of the moderator and the manner of data recording will exert a powerful influence on the quality of the data collected in a focus group. Focus groups explore collective, not individual, phenomenology, and attempts to infer the latter from focus group data are likely to be unfounded. Focus group data may be a poor indicator of attitudinal consensus, though they may reveal a divergence of opinion and the extent to which certain issues recur across groups. Focus groups can reveal the nature and range of participants’ views, but less so their strength. Generalization from focus group data is problematic, but is likely to be more fruitful at the level of theoretical generalization than at that of empirical generalization. The use of focus groups is increasing at a faster rate than our knowledge about these qualitative research methods. Every indication , however, is that this environment is dynamically changing and will continue to do so over the next 50 years. To keep up with those changes more research on focus group methods is needed. Ultimately the best teacher is experience . Like most other research tools , proficiency comes with practice. This provides an opportunity to see a variety of groups interact and the way the moderator handles specific problems as they arise. We also have drawn attention to the limitations of focus group interviews as well as to their advantages. The greatest of the limitations associated with focus groups is that each group really represents a single observation. In the case of focus groups , the demand effects are likely to result from the composition of the group , the presence of a particularly dominant member of the group, the actions of the moderator , or some other group related factor. Thus, focus groups share many of the same limitations as many other research tools, including survey research and experimentation. The source of these limitations and problems may differ somewhat, but the problems are the same. All in all if you do it on the right way with the right tools, focus group research can be very helpful for your business to come up with new ideas and to find out the best way to act with your target groups.